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Makhana, also known as fox nut or lotus seed, has been around as a snack for a long time in India. However, in recent times, makhana, often promoted as a superfood high in protein, has seen a significant surge in popularity.
Makhana are the edible seeds of the Euryale ferox plant, a type of water lily that grows in stagnant ponds and wetlands. While it is primarily cultivated in Bihar, it is also found in parts of East Asia.
Farmers in Bihar’s districts such as Darbhanga, Mithila and Madhubani have cultivated fox nuts in waterlogged fields and shallow ponds. Once harvested, the seeds are dried and roasted.
Temple offering to global market
In India, this superfood has had cultural significance through the decades. It was offered in temples and also used in fasting rituals. “Makhana has also served as a gift in Mithilanchal (region of Mithila) weddings, symbolising purity and prosperity,” says Ramanish Thakur, from TirhutWala, a Bihar-based manufacturer of makhana.
In 2023, the global fox nuts market stood at $44.4 million and by 2030, it is projected to reach $97.5 billion, with India, the largest producer, contributing a significant share, accounting for over 81% of the global revenue.
Earlier this February, at a rally in Bihar, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi had also publicly endorsed the snack, highlighting its nutritional benefits. Further, the nut also found a spotlight in the 2025-2026 budget after the government announced that a Makhana Board would be established in Bihar to increase production, ensure fair trade practices and support farmers with better market access.
Once a traditional snack, these nutrient-rich nuts have now found a place alongside kale crisps and quinoa chips on grocery shelves, globally. While fox nuts are also cultivated in countries such as Japan, China, South Korea and in Russia, India leads by a long way in production and exports, accounting for nearly 90% of the world’s makhana exports.
However, this rising appeal is fraught with numerous challenges.
Labour-intensive
The cultivation of makhana is a labour-intensive process that requires wading through knee-deep muddy waters, collecting prickly black seeds from pond beds. The workers are required to use long sticks to move the plants, which remain submerged in mud for at least a month. These seeds then go through a thorough cleaning process, are sun dried and roasted.
At an initial glance, the plant resembles a lotus, but a closer look reveals sharp thorns that make harvesting physically challenging. “The thorns sometimes hurt the farmers, but their earnings depend on this harvesting,” says Rakesh Jha, a farmer of fox nuts from the Mithila region.
There have been instances when landowners would lease out their ponds to labourers for cultivation of the nuts. “However, they would take 50% of the total profit, leaving farmers with only a fraction of their hard-earned earnings”, says Jha.
Speaking about the process, Jha says that around 10 workers roast over a 100 kg of nuts, of which only 30 kg-35 kg pop.
Unlike rice or wheat, where mechanisation has eased the process, cultivating makhana crops still heavily relies on manual labour, making it both physically draining and time-consuming. “The manual labour involved in the process is exhausting and there has been no innovation in equipment,” Thakur says. “There is no machinery available for body protection as well and this impacts farmers’ health by exposing farmers to cuts and stings leading to infections, and long-term physical strain from labour stricken tasks.”
A study conducted in the Darbhanga district revealed that the average cost of cultivation per hectare is approximately Rs. 109,395.70 with an average yield of 2,037.5 kg per hectare.
Human labour, however, constitutes for about 35.75% of the total cultivation cost, highlighting the labour-intensive nature of fox nut farming. Even after the high returns, farmers in Bihar continue to face significant price volatility in recent years.
In 2022, the price of popped makhana fell driven by hoarding. Many farmers held onto stock from previous season when sales were low leading to a sudden influx of old produce into the market that caused oversupply. The prices dipped from Rs. 400-500 per kilogram to Rs. 250-300 per kilogram. “The rate earlier for farmers was around Rs. 300 per kilogram and at most Rs. 500 per kilogram,” Thakur adds. “Now, farmers are able to sell to us at almost Rs. 1,000 per kilogram.”
According to government data of 2023, Bihar’s poverty rates stood at approximately 33%. A large population in the state lacks access to education, basic sanitation and health facilities, and employment that forces them to migrate. Most of the farmers traditionally make earnings through the cultivation of rice and wheat, which is not enough to survive.
Farmers who cultivate makhana often struggle with lack of market education and awareness, which in turn allows intermediaries to dictate prices.
“Most of us lack education and are unaware of how much we should sell the makhana for,” says Kumar, who has been involved in farming of fox nuts since a decade in Darbhanga, Bihar. “Middlemen decide the price, we do not have much say. Sometimes we do not recover what we spent during the harvest, but hopefully it will change now as demand and awareness is increasing”, mentions Kumar.
“The biggest challenge with makhana is harvesting, which is highly labour-intensive,” says Manish Anand, founder of Mithila Naturals, manufacturers for the nuts. “Progress is being made and there should be some machinery in the next two years. Bihar also undergoes a pattern of seasonal labour migration.
Can India stay ahead
China’s growing influence in global markets has flagged concerns about competition in the makhana industry. A special kind of fox nut called “Qian Shi” has gained popularity in China for claims about its medicinal purposes.
Many like Prasad are confident in India’s stronghold position in the market. “We are planning to bring in a lot of innovation in this field,” he adds.
Market manipulation is another major hurdle by certain players who want to exploit the industry. “They [the competitors] just copy our packets and change the name,” Prasad says. “Counterfeiting of established brands is emerging now because of increasing global presence [of the foxnut],”
Frequent manipulations like these often end up misleading the consumers and disrupt the industry creating instability in pricing and availability, thus affecting farmers.
This article was first published on Mongabay.
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